chapter 10

Information Technology Pros

1. The world got flexibility
What we think, do or plan must be shared with our co-workers, colleagues and friends. The internet technology has advanced this system to a great extent. The telephone idea (by Alexander Graham Bell) has been modified and made as Cell Phones to increase more flexibility in communication and talk to our dear fellows whenever we require!

2. The sense of responsibility has increased
Let us take ‘Barack Obama- USA President’ as the figure. With the use of networking sites (Twitter and Facebook), blogs, social bookmarking, the leader can approach to the world whenever necessary and we can receive the news and updates which he has done (or wants to be done by us) within a very short period.

3. Easy thinking & evolution in transportation
To think and to research, we need resources to find what our past people has thought, what quotes they have left for us (+information + theory). We can find them by a single click in Search engines (specially Google, Yahoo!). By getting a clear cut idea, we get the chance of contributing the world with new technological ideas and inventions and share what we have learnt throughout our lives. And throughout the ages, it helped us to evolute the transportation strategy which helps us to visit from a place to another by (Roads, highways, air, water and in the skies!)

4. Saves thousand of lives daily
So, by the point heading I hope you understand I am referring towards Medical Sector development. Each day people are getting relief by the perfect use of Medicine, Hospital Technology with addition of (X-Rays, Laser Treatments) and more on the queue. By the combination of the World Health Organization, various fatal diseases can be overcome and just expelled from specified countries by quick plans and ideas.

5. Increase the sense of Human Rights
The technology can remind of our human rights, basic needs and give updates where relief or worldwide help is necessary. During earthquakes, terrible floods, while co-operation is necessary the World Wide Web can help us to collect the donation by a desired amount.
It is not possible to just figure out everything about the good and bad sides of Information and Technology within a page and article as because it has mixed with every aspects and corners of our lives. Rather, let us look at the side effects, bad sides (cons) which IT-sectors have brought to the Human Society.

Information Technology Cons

1.       It has taken away people’s Privacy
As IT-Sectors have wined the people’s heart worldwide. People are here to share and store any kind of information, private date in their hard drives and private online databases. But due to some Cyber-Criminals, nothing is SO Safe both online and offline. If someone becomes a bit careless, s/he may needs to pay high for it. (It’s serious).

2.       The online community is not safe for Family anymore
Children under age may often share Cell Numbers, Private Email Address which can be hacked by people and can pass it to the criminals who have a blue-print to harm the society. And people are loosing credit card privacy and other payment processing options. Again, there are some sites created by Nasty Guys, which can lead under eighteen teenagers to a different path – That Is Going To Bring Harms To The Nation.

3.       It is going to damage a Human’s Natural Power
We can think, gather human principles (ethical knowledge) and make co-operative relationships between friends and families. But due to harmful aspects of (IT) people are becoming fully technological based. And it can bring huge damage to the society as its taking away the natural thoughts and organic ideas.

4.       It can bring World Destruction without Efficient Administration
This is an extra point which I am writing by remembering various Science Fictions. Great scholars have though about the matter wisely. Til now, we (humans) are possessing the leading place in the world and administering the computer technology. But a day MAY come when the technology is going to administer us in all aspects. It may probably happen that we are converted to the slaves of Technology.

sources

 advantages of information technology

Communication - With the help of information technology, communication has also become cheaper, quicker, and more efficient. We can now communicate with anyone around the globe by simply text messaging them or sending them an email for an almost instantaneous response. The internet has also opened up face to face direct communication from different parts of the world thanks to the helps of video conferencing.

Cost effectiveness - Information technology has helped to computerize the business process thus streamlining businesses to make them extremely cost effective money making machines. This in turn increases productivity which ultimately gives rise to profits that means better pay and less strenuous working conditions.

Bridging the cultural gap - Information technology has helped to bridge the cultural gap by helping people from different cultures to communicate with one another, and allow for the exchange of views and ideas, thus increasing awareness and reducing prejudice.

More time - IT has made it possible for businesses to be open 24 x7 all over the globe. This means that a business can be open anytime anywhere, making purchases from different countries easier and more convenient. It also means that you can have your goods delivered right to your doorstep with having to move a single muscle.

Creation of new jobs - Probably the best advantage of information technology is the creation of new and interesting jobs. Computer programmers, Systems analyzers, Hardware and Software developers and Web designers are just some of the many new employment opportunities created with the help of IT.
disadvantages of information technology

Unemployment - While information technology may have streamlined the business process it has also crated job redundancies, downsizing and outsourcing. This means that a lot of lower and middle level jobs have been done away with causing more people to become unemployed.

Privacy - Though information technology may have made communication quicker, easier and more convenient, it has also bought along privacy issues. From cell phone signal interceptions to email hacking, people are now worried about their once private information becoming public knowledge.

Lack of job security - Industry experts believe that the internet has made job security a big issue as since technology keeps on changing with each day. This means that one has to be in a constant learning mode, if he or she wishes for their job to be secure.

Dominant culture - While information technology may have made the world a global village, it has also contributed to one culture dominating another weaker one. For example it is now argued that US influences how most young teenagers all over the world now act, dress and behave. Languages too have become overshadowed, with English becoming the primary mode of communication for business and everything else.

chapter 9

examples of good websites



reason of good website

Good navigation to find good text information easily

Good, hand written web page markup and text content

A good sitemap

Good use of external .CSS

Good use of colors and graphics

good alt text information and a long description where necessary.

bias information

example of bias information


 -balck people and white people are different.
The latest This Week in Blackness is titled “Black People and White People Are Different.” It’s based on the popular style of jokes that permeated the ’90s in comedy clubs across the country. You’ve probably heard some form of joke like, “White people talk like this, black people talk like that.” The interesting thing about the video title is that some people will become enraged and yell, “Ugh, you’re highlighting and promoting differences between races and this will do nothing more than to continue to heighten the tensions that already exist!” Others will respond with an emotionally flat, “Duh.” A weird byproduct of the post-racialization of America is the desire that some have to stomp out anything that sticks out as “other” between the races. When one points out differences in treatment or experiences (like I do, regularly) they’re immediately attacked and called a bigot or racist (like, well, here on this site, for example).

	Definitions Types of Bias Complicating Factors Observational Studies and Reviews without Large Meta-analyses Reviewer Bias Types of Bias & Definitions (Table) The results of a systematic review of a health care intervention are liable to be influenced by systematic error (bias), as is the case with any observational study. There is a risk of bias influencing a review if the characteristics of, and distribution of reports (concerning a particular treatment) within and outside the medical literature are associated with the nature and direction (degree of harm or benefit, statistical significance, precision) of the results. In other words, there is a risk of bias at the secondary level if account is not taken of bias in the primary research literature. Any action taken by the reviewer should be appropriate to the type of bias and could involve, for example, a careful search for trials from a certain source, or the exclusion of trials from a certain chronological period, or a cautious appraisal of results selectively reported by trialists. DefinitionsThe characteristics of reports include the outcome estimator used (e.g. Odds Ratio), the primary outcome selected by the investigator (e.g. freedom from symptoms, death) and the sub-group results actually appearing in the report (e.g. patient status after three months, patients under 40 years of age). The distributions of reports relates, for example, to the differential publication and non-publication of reports according to their results, to the accessibility of reports (e.g. their appearance in some databases and not in others), and to the appearance of reports in English language journals or in languages other than English in a pattern that is related to their results. Types of Bias Bias has the potential to affect reviews of both experimental and observational studies. Some of the different types of bias are summarized below. However, work-to-date has focused mainly on the reports of trials and the potential impact of bias on meta-analyses of trials. A prime example is "publication bias", an issue in social science research for over forty years (Sterling 1959; Smith 1980). There is now considerable evidence that trials which are not formally published ("grey trials"), and have to be accessed from sources such as conference reports or contact with trialists, have results that differ systematically (showing less benefit of treatment) from those published in journals (Simes 1986; Dickersin 1990, Easterbrook 1991; Dickersin 1997; McAuley et al. 2000; Bartlett et al. 2000; Pham B 2000; Sterne et al. 2000; Sutton et al. 2000). Trials with less beneficial results, moreover, tend to take longer to achieve publication than trials with more optimistic results ("time lag bias") (Stern and Simes 1997; Clarke and Hopewell 2000). Many reviewers endeavour to avoid publication bias by attempting to identify and include all relevant trials from the grey literature. However, this is a time-consuming process and estimates of the average impact of the grey literature have varied in magnitude. Further investigation is required if pragmatic guidelines for reviewers are to be drawn up. Forms of bias are also connected with the following: language of journals ("language bias") (Gregoire et al. 1995; Moher et al. 1996; Egger et al. 1997; Moher et al. 2000; Jüni et al. 2000); with the source of funding for the primary research ("funding bias") (Davidson 1986; Rochon et al. 1994; Cho and Bero 1996); with the selective reporting of results within primary studies ("outcome variable selection bias") (Hutton and Williamson 2000; Hahn et al. 2000; Hahn, Williamson and Hutton 2002) (also known as "within-study reporting bias"); with the inclusion of reports within some bibliographic databases and not within others ("database bias") (Zielinski 1995); with inconsistent coding within databases ("coding bias"); and preferential citation of certain results by scientific authors ("citation bias"). These last three biases are also sometimes referred to as "retrieval biases" and a case might be made for regarding them as constituting a class of bias distinct from other types of reporting bias. The nature of the results and outcome of a study may also be associated with the geographical location in which the study was undertaken or in which the researchers were based (Vickers et al. 1998; Pittler et al. 2000). For example, it may also be more difficult for studies from some regions, most notably developing countries, to achieve full publication or publication in the most accessible journals (Zielinski 1995; Wayt Gibbs 1995). "Regional Bias" and "Developed Country Biases" may affect the results of some systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and have significant consequences for the practice of evidence-based health care around the world, particularly in developing countries. Complicating Factors Additional considerations for the reviewer are the questions of whether bias and its impact varies by topic area, for example, by medical specialty, by type of intervention (e.g. drug or non-drug), or according to whether the intervention is complementary or conventional medicine, or according to the subject population (e.g. children or adults). There is also the issue of whether a bias in primary studies is inevitably associated with lack of quality. The level of quality of primary research, (the level of bias in the design and conduct of primary studies) is a major issue for Cochrane reviewers, and investigations into bias will, of necessity, involve consideration of the quality of primary studies. Observational Studies and Reviews without Large Meta-analyses With regard to observational studies, our knowledge of the pattern of bias and its potential impact on meta-analyses is markedly more limited than is the case with trials. Knowledge is also very limited with regard to the influence of bias on systematic reviews without meta-analyses and on meta-analyses likely to contain a small number of trials. Reviewer Bias The BMG is concerned with the way factors relating to the results of primary studies might lead to bias at the secondary level, that is, in a systematic review. However, the BMG will also investigate "Reviewer Bias" (Ernst 1994; Cates 1998), subjective bias introduced by the systematic reviewer at the level of secondary research, in a way that cannot be wholly attributed to the characteristics of the primary studies. This consideration might be made because some of the methodological approaches used would be similar to those used for investigating primary reporting bias and it is possible that reviewer bias could compound the effects of the reporting biases. Types of Reporting Bias & Definitions Publication Bias (Positive results bias) The tendency on the parts of the investigators, reviewers, and editors to submit or accept manuscripts for publication based on the direction or strength of the study findings (Dickersin 1990). Language Bias Languages of publication depend on the direction and strength of the study results (Gregoire 1995). Funding Bias The biases in the design, outcome, and reporting of industry sponsored research in order to show that a drug shows a favourable outcome (Lexchin 2003). Outcome Reporting Bias A study in which multiple outcomes were measured reports only those that are significant, than those that were insignificant or unfavourable (Song 2000). Database Bias Biased indexing of published studies in literature databases (Felson 1992). The literature search will be biased when it is based on a database in which the results of indexed studies are systematically different from those of non-indexed studies (Song 2000). Study Quality Bias Studies of lower or higher quality are associated with positive or favourable results. Grey Literature Bias The results reported in journal articles are systematically different from those presented in reports, working papers, dissertations, or conference abstracts (Song 2000)